The Physiological Foundation of the Race of Photoenergy Hominini (Part 1) The race of Photoenergy Hominini evolved from Homonini because they obtained nutrients and energy from solar energy. The name comes from these characteristics. The photoenergy organ already explained in the outline section of Dual Synthetic Animalia. It will omit the explanation here. The main point of this paper is to introduce the physiological mechanism of photoelectric effect formula and resistance to ultraviolet radiation. Photosynthesis is carried out under the propellant of solar energy. The sun is the heat nucleus fusion structure, where nucleus fusion releases a tremendous amount of energy such that the temperature reaches million degrees in the core region and the surface temperature maintains around 6000 K. The radiation of infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet etc. from the sun rays can pass through atmosphere. The most of ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone and it can prevent ultraviolet radioactive harm to the human body.
Figure 3 Electromagnetic spectrum (Biochemistry, part 2)
The speed of electromagnetic radiation is 2.998x108 m/s, it is speed of light. There are different wavelengths from different radiation, for example, x-ray is smaller than 10-8 m; electric wave is above 10m; visible light is in the range between 380 to 750 nm. The requirements of light spectra for photosynthesis are the same range of visible light. Photosynthesis reactions are similar to normal photochemical reactions; they follow Einstein’s law of equivalent. If a molecule can only absorb energy of one photon (hv) to cause the reaction later, then 1 mole of compound must absorb the energy (Nhv) of N photons (Avogadro constant number, 6.022x1023) to activate reaction. One mole of photon contains N number of photons, is called one Einstein. The amount energy of one Einstein (E) equals to Nhv. E=Nhv. Photon and Einstein are photon energy unit in photochemistry. According to the frequency (v) equals to light of speed(c) /wavelength(λ), v=c/λ, following this equation, the energy of all kinds of wavelength can be calculated. For example: infrared wavelength λ=700nm, it produces energy 17.10x104J/Einstein or 1.72eV/photon (1eV=1.602x10-19 J); ultraviolet light wavelength λ=400nm, it produces energy 29.90x104J/Einstein or 3.10eV/photon. Thus it can be seen that one mole visible light can produce 170 to 299 KJ of energy; this energy is more than the synthesis of ADP and Pi to one mole. ATP (30KJ). (Biochemistry, part 2) The nature of light exhibits duality: wave and particle properties (wave-particle duality). Under the suitable aid-objects resonance and transmission, light will vibrate in sine wave at position and time in the electromagnetic field. If under the different background of energetic status (B) construction resonance, the light will move by flowing particle form at light of speed. The particle of light is named light quantum or photon which provides the characteristics of quantum of mass wave and particle flow. In 1900, M. Plank described black body thermal radiation in experiment and proposed the hypothesis of quantum theory. The main idea of hypothesis pointed out the radiation was not discreteness; it appeared the independent small packet form. This small energetic packet was quantum, it was the smallest unit in energy and also named energy quantum (ε). The quantity was direct proportion to radioactive frequency. ε ＝ hv where h: Planck constant 6.626x10-34 Js or 4.135eVs and v: frequency, s-1. Mr. Plank thought the energy change in radioactive substance to be quantum, the quantity of radioactive energy from ejection or absorbance must be integer multiples of an energy quantum hv and it is discrete way to process one by one. In 1905, A. Einstein explained photoelectric effect, and the concept of the photon based on Planck’s hypothesis of quantum theory. He thought light was constituent of a series of energy-package of photons. Every photon had its energyε=hv, each different frequency of photon had different energy. Since frequency was inverse related to wavelength, the short wavelength light carried high energy. When a photon (hv) of abundant energy was absorbed by an electron in a mass, one part of energy was exhausted by the work(A) of releasing electron from the restraint of the mass, the remains of energy converted to kinetic energy (½mV2) of the releasing electron (called photoelectron). So:hv ＝ ½ mv2＋ A This is Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect. When plant photosynthetic pigments absorb a suitable energy photon, then one photoelectron was ejected from the pigment’s molecules. The so-called suitable energy photon refers to the photon with energy exceeding the threshold, the definition of energy threshold means sufficient energy to activate the photosynthetic pigments. One photon cannot deliver energy (ε) to two or more electrons, two or more photons cannot combine their energy to eject one electron either. Therefore, the energy photon with excess threshold value is required to excite one electron from pigment’s molecule and then activate photosynthesis reaction. In 2010, Mr. Yuan Lin in describing the experimental phenomena of the Absolute Homeostasis Energy Source, he put forward the interpretation of Absolute Homeostasis Energy Source, according to Plank’s hypothesis of quantum and Einstein’s law of photon. He proposed that no matter light is a mass-wave or particle flow is affected by the light medium, that is the background energy status —influence from radiation of universal background. The main factor of formation of either mass-wave or particle flow is the background energy status, it forms a common entity with the formation of light quantum. That is to say the same frequency or similar energetic status will mutually involve and change energy phase, and therefore decide the mass-wave and particle flow of light. In Linyuan mechanics, the thermal energy of light was considered to form by one after another of continuous impact of light speed moving particle flow. The background energy status is background factor to all and including all sorts of dimensions and physical phenomena. The original background energy status is absolute homeostasis (HA) and the energy that binds absolute homeostasis is the absolute energy (HE). The Energy in Absolute Homeostasis (HAES) is combination of HA and HE; it activates the background energy status and affects the behavior of quantum status and initiates the chain reaction, therefore
This is the first formula about photoelectric effect in Linyuan Mechanics; it also names the equation of the “Energy in Absolute Homeostasis”. The paper “The Growth of Mycelium of Aspergillus flaves Inhibited by the Absolute Homeostasis Energy Source” describes the first formula. (This paper was presented on June 4, 2011 in SIVB). When photons with abundant energy (hv) proceed the extreme far distance exercise, no matter they work (A) or eject electron to produce kinetic energy (½mV2), the energy is diminished by common entity function of background energy status (B) and the abundant energy of photons becomes zero.
This is the second formula about photoelectric effect in Linyuan Mechanics, it also names the equation of diminish photon. The energy of photons becomes zero; it means the disappearance of light. The common entity function of the different background energy status causes the diminishment of photons with sufficient energy. However, the common entity function of background energy status of absolute homeostasis (HAES) could stabilize the energy status of photons and extend the life of photons, therefore
This is the third equation about photoelectric effect in Linyuan Mechanics; it also names the equation of the steady state of photon energy. The common entity function of background energy status which is equivalent to light quantum , it can activate Linyuan Intrinsic Genetic Photosynthetic Transformation (LIGHT).
This is the fourth equation about photoelectric effect in Linyuan Mechanics; it also names the equation of activation of intrinsic genetic photosynthetic transformation. Light was constituent of a series of energy-package of photons. Every photon had its energyε=hv; The common entity function of background energy status of Energy in Absolute Homeostasis (HAES) tends to activate the photon energy package to absolute homeostasis. Therefore, it extends the work (A) of photon and ejection electron kinetic energy; so the common entity function of background energy status of Absolute Homeostasis Energy Source (HAES) can release pure energy from photon energy package.
This is the fifth equation about photoelectric effect in Linyuan Mechanics, it also names the equation of the fission of photon energy. The pure energy was released from photon energy package. It can offer many usages in Quantum Mechanics. The whole procedure of experiment about the fission of photons was described by fifth equation. It is significant influence to substance by pure energy. (The research paper has not been published). The pure energy of photon was released from packet. We can utilize fifth equation of Linyuan Mechanics about photoelectric effect -- the equation of the fission of photon energy and release pure energy of photon from packet. The pure energy exists in packet of substance; therefore we can utilize fifth equation to release pure energy from packet of substance. The pure energy from packet of substance cannot be calculated, it is only through quantum resonance and transmission to find out. So it is no relation with the variety of mass of substance.
where pe: pure energy The Race of Photoenergy Hominin has to resist ultraviolet radiation during photosynthesis, we have to review the knowledge about ultraviolet radiation before any detailed explanation about LIGHT. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation does not possess sufficient energy to induce ionizations. However, it is readily absorbed by many organic molecules such as the purines and pyrimidines in DNA, which then enter a more reactive or excited state. UV rays penetrate tissue only slightly. Thus, in multicellular organisms, only the epidermal layer of cells usually is exposed to the effects of UV. However, ultraviolet light is a potent mutagen for unicellular organisms. The maximum absorption of UV by DNA is at a wavelength of 254 nm. Maximum mutagenicity also occurs at 254 nm, suggesting that the UV-induced mutation process is mediated directly by the absorption of UV by purines and pyrimidines. In vitro studies show that the pyrimidines absorb strongly at 254 nm and, as a result, become very reactive. Two major products of UV absorption by pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine) are pyrimidine hydrates and pyrimidine dimers (FIGURE 13.19). Thymine dimers cause mutations in two ways. (1) Dimers perturb the structure of DNA double helices and interfere with accurate DNA replication. (2) Errors occur during the cellular processes that repair defects in DNA, such as UV-induced thymine dimers (see the section “DNA Repair Mechanisms” later in this chapter).
Figure 13.19 Pyrimidine photoproducts of UV irradiation. (a) Hydrolysis of cytosine to a hydrate form that may cause mispairing of bases during replication. (b) Cross-linking of adjacent thymine molecules to form thymine dimers, which block DNA replication. (Principles of Genetics, Fifth Edition.) Light-dependent repair. Light-dependent repair or photoreactivation of DNA in bacteria is carried out by a light-activated enzyme called DNA photolyase. When DNA is exposed to ultraviolet light, thymine dimers are produced by covalent cross-linkages between adjacent thymine residues (see FIGURE 13.19b). DNA photolyase recognizes and binds to thymine dimers in DNA, and uses light energy to cleave the covalent cross-links (FIGURE 13.22). Photolyase will bind to thymine dimers in DNA in the dark, but it cannot catalyze cleavage of the bonds joining the thymine moieties without energy derived from visible light, specifically light within the blue region of the spectrum. Photolyase also splits cytosine dimers and cytosine-thymine dimers. Thus, when ultraviolet light is used to induce mutations in bacteria, the irradiated cells are grown in the dark for a few generations to maximize the mutation frequency.
Figure 13.22 Cleavage of thymine dimer cross-links by light-activated photolyase. The arrows indicate the opposite polarity of the complementary strands of DNA. (Principles of Genetics, Fifth Edition.) Excision repair. Excision repair of damaged DNA involves at least three steps. In step 1, a DNA repair endonuclease or endonuclease-containing enzyme complex recognizes, binds to, and excises the damaged base or bases in DNA. In step 2, a DNA polymerase fills in the gap by using the undamaged complementary strand of DNA as template. In step 3, the enzyme DNA ligase seals the break left by DNA polymerase to complete the repair process. There are two major types of excision repair: base excision repair systems remove abnormal or chemically modified bases from DNA, whereas nucleotide excision repair pathways remove larger defects like thymine dimers. Both excision pathways are operative in the dark, and both occur by very similar mechanisms in E. coli and humans. Base excision repair (FIGURE 13.23) can be initiated by any of a group of enzymes called DNA glycosylases that recognize abnormal bases in DNA. Each glycosylase recognizes a specific type of altered base, such as deaminated bases, oxidized bases, and so on (step 2). The glycosylases cleave the glycosidic bond between the abnormal base and 2-deoxyribose, creating apurinic or apyrimidinic sites (AP sites) with missing bases (step 3). AP sites are recognized by enzymes called AP endonucleases, which act together with phosphodiesterases to excise the sugar-phosphate groups at these sites (step 4). DNA polymerase then replaces the missing nucleotide according to the specifications of the complementary strand (step 5), and DNA ligase seals the nick (step 6).
Figure 13.23 Repair of DNA by the base excision pathway. Base excision repair may be initiated by any one of several different DNA glycosylases. In the example shown, uracil DNA glycosylase starts the repair process. (Principles of Genetics, Fifth Edition.) Nucleotide excision repair removes larger lesions like thymine dimers and bases with bulky side-groups from DNA. In nucleotide excision repair, a unique excision nuclease activity produces cuts on either side of the damaged nucleotide(s) and excises an oligonucleotide containing the damaged base(s). This nuclease is called an excinuclease to distinguish it from the endonucleases and exonucleases that play other roles in DNA metabolism. The E. coli nucleotide excision repair pathway is shown in FIGURE 13.24. In E. coli, excinuclease activity requires the products of three genes, uvrA, uvrB, and uvrC (designated uvr for UV repair). A trimeric protein containing two UvrA polypeptides and one UvrB polypeptide recognizes the defect in DNA, binds to it, and uses energy from ATP to bend the DNA at the damaged site. The UvrA dimer is then released, and the UvrC protein binds to the UvrB/DNA complex. The UvrB protein cleaves the fifth phosphodiester bond from the damaged nucleotide(s) on the 3’ side, and the UvrC protein hydrolyzes the eighth phosphodiester linkage from the damage on the 5’ side. The uvrD gene product, DNA helicase II, releases the excised dodecamer. In the last two steps of the pathway, DNA polymerase I fill in the gap, and DNA ligase seals the remaining nick in the DNA molecule.
Figure 13.24 Repair of DNA by the nucleotide excision pathway in E. coli. The excinuclease (excision nuclease) activity requires the products of three genes—uvrA, uvrB and uvrC. Nucleotide excision occurs by a similar pathway in humans, except that many more proteins are involved and a 24-to-32-nucleotide-long oligomer is excised.(Principles of Genetics, Fifth Edition.) Nucleotide excision repair in humans occurs through a pathway similar to the one in E. coli, but it involves about four times as many proteins. In humans, the excinuclease activity contains 15 polypeptides. Protein XPA (for xeroderma pigmentosum protein A) recognizes and binds to the damaged nucleotide(s) in DNA. It then recruits the other proteins required for excinuclease activity. In humans, the excised oligomer is 24 to 32 nucleotides long rather than the dodecamer removed in E. coli. The gap is filled in by either DNA polymerase δ or ε in humans, and DNA ligase completes the job. Other DNA repair mechanisms. During the last few years, research on DNA repair mechanisms has demonstrated the presence of an army of DNA repair enzymes that constantly scan DNA for damage ranging from the presence of thymine dimers induced by ultraviolet light to modifications too diverse and numerous to describe here. New results of this work have shown that several previously unknown DNA polymerases play critical roles in various DNA repair processes. Detailed discussions of these important DNA repair processes are beyond the scope of this text. Nevertheless, the importance of these repair mechanisms cannot be overstated. What is more important to the survival of a species than maintaining the integrity of its genetic blueprint? The race of Photoenergy Hominini resisted ultraviolet radiation to repair DNA mechanism through strong active to reach the job. (The physiological characteristics of the Phylum of Strong Chordata). The functions of strong active absorbed photon activate the catalytic enzyme and the procedures are similar to photolyase. It ejected electrons and photons to damage DNA, and dimers are decomposed to normal monomer pyrimidine and recover to original bases. The whole procedure of ultraviolet radiation will happen within a few billionth of a second after ultraviolet damage. The structures and functions of the race of Photoenergy Hominini can inherit to next generation. The photoenergetic mechanism of secondary generation of Photoenergy Hominini starts during the embryo differentiation stage. Reference:Principles of Genetics, D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons, Fifth Edition
(Copyright of this article is reserved by Mr. Yuan Lin. This article cannot be transcribed or reprinted without the permission.) © 2012 Chinese Association for the Human Evolution. All Rights Reserved.
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